Before Ibn al-Haytham, science was philosophical. He introduced the requirement of observation, hypothesis, and experimentation to prove theories. This methodology is the basis of all modern scientific inquiry.

Al-Khwarizmi didn't just solve equations; he created Algebra (Al-Jabr) as a standalone discipline. He also introduced the concept of Algorithms, without which modern computers and software would not exist.

Ibn Sina's Canon of Medicine codified all medical knowledge of the time. He introduced quarantine to stop the spread of infection, clinical trials for drugs, and the concept of syndrome-based diagnosis.

Jabir moved chemistry from superstition (alchemy) to science. He invented distillation, crystallization, and calcination. He discovered sulfuric and nitric acids, which are vital for today's chemical industries.

He correctly identified that light travels in straight lines and that vision occurs when light reflects off objects into the eye. This debunked centuries of Greek theory and led to the invention of the camera.

Using trigonometry and the height of a mountain, Al-Biruni calculated the circumference of the Earth with 99.7% accuracy compared to modern values. He also discussed the rotation of the Earth on its axis.

In his Muqaddimah, Ibn Khaldun established the fields of Sociology and Historiography. He analyzed how climate, geography, and group solidarity (*Asabiyyah*) affect the rise and fall of civilizations.

Al-Zahrawi invented over 200 surgical instruments that are still in use today, including forceps, scalpels, and bone saws. He also pioneered the use of dissolving catgut for internal stitches.

Muslims established the first true hospitals (Bimaristan) which had separate wards for different diseases, pharmacies, libraries, and lecture halls. Treatment was often free, and patients were treated with dignity.

Muslim botanists classified thousands of plants and revolutionized agriculture through advanced irrigation (water wheels, qanats) and crop rotation, introducing crops like cotton, sugar, and citrus to the West.

Al-Idrisi created the Tabula Rogeriana, the most accurate map of the medieval world. It was used by travelers for centuries. He also built a silver globe to demonstrate the Earth's spherical shape.

Centuries before William Harvey, Ibn al-Nafis accurately described the Pulmonary Transit—how blood flows from the right ventricle of the heart to the lungs for oxygenation and back to the left ventricle.