Contribution: The Solar Calendar & Cubic Equations.

He designed the Jalali Calendar, which is more accurate than the Gregorian calendar used today. He also solved cubic equations using geometric methods centuries before Descartes.

Contribution: The Muqaddimah (Introduction to History).

Known as the "Father of Sociology." He formulated the theories of social cohesion (Asabiyyah), the rise and fall of empires, and supply and demand economics long before Adam Smith.

Contribution: Encyclopedia of Plants.

The greatest botanist of the Islamic Golden Age. He cataloged over 1,400 types of plants and foods for medical use, describing their pharmaceutical properties in extreme detail.

Contribution: Calculus Precursor & Statics.

He played a key role in translating Greek works but also pioneered the branch of physics called Statics. He developed a method for finding the volume of paraboloids, paving the way for integral calculus.

Contribution: The Equatorium & Toledo Tables.

He invented the Equatorium to determine planetary positions without calculation. He proved that the movement of the sun's apogee is not fixed, correcting Ptolemy's geocentric data.

Contribution: Experimental Surgery & Scabies Mite.

He was the first to describe the scabies mite, proving diseases can be caused by parasites. He performed the first experimental tracheotomy on a goat, advancing emergency surgery.

Contribution: The Second Teacher.

Known as "The Second Teacher" (after Aristotle). He wrote Kitab al-Musiqa, laying the scientific principles of music and sound frequencies. He also synthesized philosophy with Islamic theology.

Contribution: Planetary Models (Heliocentrism).

His mathematical models of planetary motion were mathematically identical to those used by Copernicus 150 years later. He removed the "equant" from Ptolemy's model, a massive leap in accuracy.

Contribution: Sultan of Stars & The Zij.

A ruler who built the massive Samarkand Observatory. He compiled the Zij-i-Sultani, a star catalogue containing the positions of 992 stars with precision unmatched until modern telescopes.

Contribution: Algebra freed from Geometry.

He was the first to define the algebra of polynomials (x, x², x³). He also wrote Extraction of Hidden Waters, the definitive manual on finding groundwater and building underground aqueducts (Qanats).

Contribution: The Book of Plants.

Known as the founder of Islamic Botany. His Kitab al-Nabat described the life cycle of plants, their morphology, and classification in a purely scientific manner, separate from pharmacology.

Contribution: Disease & Climate.

An Egyptian physician who extensively studied the link between climate, environment, and disease spread. His detailed observation of the Supernova of 1006 is still cited by modern astronomers.